Special Education: A Reference Book for Policy and Curriculum Development
Summary
This second edition by Arlene Sacks traces the evolution of special education from its roots in superstition and exclusion through the modern era of federal legislation, individualized programming, and inclusive practices. The book examines how regular education developed alongside special education, how landmark laws such as IDEA and Section 504 shape services today, how students are assessed and placed, and how curriculum and technology support diverse learners. It also addresses the political and advocacy dimensions of special education, provides primary documents, organizational resources, and a glossary, making it a practical reference for educators, advocates, and families navigating the special education system.
Key Concepts (20)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Federal law requiring states to provide a free and appropriate public education to children with disabilities in the least restrictive environment, and mandating individualized education programs (IEPs) for eligible students.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
A legally required, written document developed by a team that outlines a special education student's present levels of performance, measurable annual goals, specific services, and methods for measuring progress.
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
A legal requirement that students with disabilities be educated alongside non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate, with removal to more restrictive settings only when the nature of the disability makes satisfactory education in a regular classroom impossible.
Inclusion
The practice of educating students with disabilities in the general education classroom full-time alongside non-disabled peers, with support services brought to the child rather than removing the child for separate instruction.
Mainstreaming
The practice of placing students with disabilities in general education classrooms for part or all of the school day, historically done on a voluntary basis and often resulting in fragmented school experiences when not properly supported.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
A federal civil rights law prohibiting discrimination based on disability in programs receiving federal funding, requiring schools to provide accommodations to students with disabilities who may not qualify for services under IDEA.
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
The legal guarantee that students with disabilities receive special education and related services at public expense, under public supervision, that meet the standards of the state education agency and conform to the student's IEP.
Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)
An assessment process derived from educational psychology that identifies the cause or function of a student's behavior before developing an intervention, using observations, interviews, and environmental analysis to inform positive behavior supports.
Norm-Referenced Assessment
A standardized test in which an individual student's performance is compared to the performance of a representative national or local sample of same-age or same-grade peers, identifying students who perform significantly above or below average.
Criterion-Referenced Assessment
A test that measures the extent to which a student has mastered specific curriculum content or skill objectives, describing what the student has learned and what still needs to be learned rather than comparing the student to peers.
Response to Intervention (RTI)
A multi-tier instructional framework that uses high-quality, evidence-based instruction and frequent progress monitoring to identify struggling students early, provide targeted interventions, and inform decisions about special education eligibility.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
A curriculum framework that proactively builds in flexible methods of representation, expression, and engagement to make learning accessible to all students, including those with disabilities, reducing the need for after-the-fact accommodations.
Dual Exceptionality
A condition in which a student is both gifted and has a disability, creating a population that is frequently underidentified and underserved because the disability may mask giftedness or the giftedness may mask the disability.
Learning Potential Assessment
A dynamic assessment approach using a test-teach-test format to evaluate a student's capacity to learn with instruction rather than measuring only current knowledge, emphasizing the role of social interaction and mediated learning in cognitive development.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
Federal education legislation enacted in 2001 that established accountability standards for all students, including those with disabilities, requiring states to demonstrate adequate yearly progress and employing highly qualified teachers in all classrooms.
Child Find
A federally mandated system requiring states and school districts to actively identify, locate, and evaluate all children with disabilities from birth through age 21 who may be in need of early intervention or special education services.
Assistive Technology
Any device, software, or equipment used to maintain or improve the functional capabilities of a student with a disability, as required under IDEA, including adaptive input/output devices that support participation in general education classrooms.
Full-Service School
A school model that coordinates education, health, and social services on school grounds through partnerships with community agencies, creating a one-stop resource designed to eliminate barriers to achievement especially for at-risk and special needs students.
Formal vs. Informal Assessment
Formal assessment uses standardized tests of intellectual ability, achievement, and adaptive behavior, while informal assessment includes systematic observation, work sample analysis, task and error analysis, interviews, and questionnaires to build a complete picture of student needs.
Regular Education Initiative (REI)
A position advocated by some special educators that students with disabilities should be served exclusively within general education classrooms without being pulled out for separate special education classes, serving as a philosophical foundation for full inclusion practices.